The Indus Valley Civilization (circa 3300-1300 BCE) stands as one of the earliest urban societies. Around 1500 BCE, the Aryan migration occurred, shaping Vedic culture. In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great invaded India, leaving a lasting impact on its culture. The Maurya Empire, established by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE, united most of the Indian subcontinent under a centralized rule. Emperor Ashoka's reign (269-232 BCE) marked a significant era of peace, non-violence, and religious tolerance. The Gupta Empire (320-550 CE) brought advancements in arts and sciences. In the medieval period, India witnessed various dynasties and empires, including which brought Persian and Islamic influences to the subcontinent. The Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in 1526, reached its zenith under Akbar the Great (1556-1605), blending diverse cultures and religious tolerance.
The British East India Company's arrival in the 17th century led to colonization and eventual independence struggle. Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent resistance led to India's independence in 1947. Modern India emerged as a democratic republic with Jawaharlal Nehru as its first Prime Minister. The India-Pakistan conflict began with partition in 1947, leading to territorial disputes, especially over Kashmir. Tensions persist due to cross-border terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and competing regional interests, hindering efforts for lasting peace and stability.
India operates as a federal parliamentary democratic republic. The President is the head of state, while the Prime Minister, as the head of government, wields executive power. The Parliament consists of two houses: the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
Pre-independence, India had an agrarian economy under British rule. Post-independence socialist policies were adopted, limiting private enterprise. In the 1990s, India embarked on economic liberalization, opening markets, and embracing globalization. This shift led to significant growth, with the services, technology, and manufacturing sectors expanding. By 2019, India emerged as the fifth-largest economy in the world. India is the world's most populous country and a regional power in South Asia. Its large youth population and expanding middle class is expected to drive consumption and investment, propelling the economy forward. The country holds a significant geopolitical standing in the world with its growing economy, large consumer market, and strategic location garnering increasing international attention. Despite progress, challenges including poverty, inequality, and unemployment persist.
